Theology of the Pentateuch: A Primer
Christ in the Pentateuch
During his earthly ministry, Jesus travels up a mountainside on multiple occasions. Sometimes his traversing occurs so that he can pray after a taxing day and at other times it is to manifest his glory among his disciples (Matthew 14:23; 17:1). On a separate mountainside ascension, Jesus’ purpose is to teach his disciples before the amassing crowds (Matthew 5:1-2). Here, Jesus makes a claim whose foundation rests in the Pentateuch, saying, “Do not think that I have come to abolish the Law or the Prophets; I have not come to abolish them but to fulfill them” (Matthew 5:17-18).[1] For Christians to grasp the totality of Christ's statement in Matthew 5:17, they must first understand the contents and theology of the Pentateuch, which displays the God-ordained need for Christ to act on man’s behalf.
The Pentateuch consists of the books of Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. “Theology is the study and presentation of what is revealed in the [Bible].”[2] Since the Pentateuch consists of God’s revelation of himself, his creation, and his redemption of his creation, a proper theology of the Pentateuch studies and presents the concepts of God, Humanity, and Salvation within the first five books of the Old Testament.
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Genesis
The book of Genesis is a narrative containing the life and events of Creation, the Flood, and Abraham. The structure, plot, and characterization within the book provide the “divine promulgation”[3] of rich theology to the reader. Within its fifty chapters, Genesis unveils the character and nature of both God and man, along with man’s need for external rescue.
God in Genesis
Genesis presents God as Creator who produces order from chaos.[1] On the final day of Creation, God makes man in his image (Gen. 1:27), and his divine attributes manifest themselves primarily through his interactions with man. As shown in Creation (Gen. 1-2), the Flood (Gen. 9:8-17), and the life of Abraham (Gen. 12:1-3; 17:1-14), the primary method God chooses to interact with man is via covenant. Douglas Stuart supports the use of Hosea 6:7 to confirm a covenant at Creation, saying, “v 7 is as closely connected to the thought expressed in vv 4-6 as it is to what follows, and especially relates to v 4b as a general statement of Israel’s infidelity.”[2] For Stuart, context determines meaning, and the covenant context of verses 4-6 (more so than verses 7-10) determines the meaning of verse 7 within Hosea chapter 6.
The fact that God interacts with man consistently through covenanting partially reveals his attribute of immutability. Furthermore, the context of the covenant shows God’s desire to be in communion with man. Additionally, to Stuart’s point, when man rebels and breaks their covenant with God (Gen. 3), the Lord’s character comes to the forefront of the pages of Genesis. For example, God displays justice in providing divine sanctions for covenant obedience and disobedience (Gen. 17:1-14). Still yet, God’s kindness, patience, compassion, and grace despite covenant disobedience portray a loving God who is faithful to keep his promises.
The stories within Genesis also display God’s sovereignty. The story of Joseph is the foremost display of the Lord’s sovereign work in the lives of man. Joseph is not aloof to this fact and testifies of God’s sovereignty to his brothers in Genesis 50:20. From the Creation of humanity to the preservation of Israel in Egypt, the book of Genesis displays an all-powerful God who desires glory through the worship and communion of his covenant people.
Humanity in Genesis
Genesis teems with lessons of man’s nature and character. Although Adam is an image-bearer of God, he is capable of sinning (Gen. 1:27; 3:1-7). Sin separates him from God and his ejection from Eden is a physical manifestation of his spiritual reality. Adam's sin results in immediate spiritual death and eventually physical death (Gen. 3:17-19). Unfortunately, Adam’s sin extends beyond himself (Gen. 8:21; cf. Rom. 5:12-14). Noah, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob all struggle with sin despite God’s mercy and provision in their lives (Gen. 9:21; 20:2; 26:6; 27:24). Fortunately, the Patriarchs’ sinful nature does not nullify God’s covenantal promises or his desire to have fellowship with man. From Genesis 3 forward, man is dependent on God to bring about his covenantal promises, “despite the blighting effects of their disobedience.”[6]
Salvation in Genesis
Overall, Genesis is the record of the first accounts of a salvation story that stretches across the Pentateuch and into the Gospels. Following the sin of Adam and Eve, God makes a promise of a future Savior, one who will crush the serpent, saying, “I will put enmity between you and the woman and between your offspring and her offspring; he shall bruise your head and you shall bruise his heel” (Gen 3:15). The singular pronoun “he” in this verse displays God’s intention to bring relief to the people from one man. The ancient audience expects their savior to come in the form of man, as seen in Genesis 5:29, which states, “[They] called his name Noah, saying, ‘Out of the ground that the Lord has cursed, this one shall bring us relief from our work and from the painful toil of our hands.”
Still, salvation exists within Genesis. As early as Cain and Abel:
God offered the provision of some kind of salvation through trusting the promise of God . . . As the history of the Old Testament progressed, God’s words of promise became more and more specific, and the forward-looking faith of God’s people accordingly became more and more definite.[7]
This progression of Old Testament history, along with more specific promises from God, occurs as the pages of Genesis close and Israel finds themselves in Egypt in the book of Exodus.
Exodus
The second book of the Pentateuch follows the children of Israel both into and out of their oppressive slavery in Egypt. Like Genesis, Exodus unveils the character and nature of both God and man, along with man’s need for salvation.
God in Exodus
Exodus connects itself to Genesis by picking up on the themes of both Creation and God’s Sovereignty through the means of ordinary people (Ex. 1:7, 15-21). Following Moses’ murder of an Egyptian, he makes his dwelling in the wilderness of Midian as a shepherd. Here, God reveals himself to Moses in a burning bush, along with his desire for Moses to lead the Israelites out of Egypt (Ex. 3:1-12). In chapters 7-12, God shows his control over the physical world, including the elements and animals, by bringing ten plagues upon Egypt. Exodus presents God’s intimate involvement in both understanding and influencing the heart of man (Ex. 3:19; 4:21; 9:12, 34-35).[8] In Exodus 20, God reveals his desire for man to be holy by giving the Ten Commandments to Moses on Mount Sinai. Lastly, God shows his patience and mercy by renewing his covenant with Israel despite their worship of a Golden Calf (Ex. 32-34).
Humanity in Exodus
Throughout the book of Exodus, God’s continual reminder of his covenant with Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob acts as comfort and motivation for Israel to persist through seemingly dire circumstances (Ex. 14:13-14). Man’s wickedness shows in the oppression of Egypt over Israel. Man’s deeply felt need for self-preservation is present irrespective of ethnicity. Egypt enslaves Israel out of fear of destruction, and later, Israel laments ever leaving Egypt for fear of death (Ex. 1:8-14). Lastly, the story of the Golden Calf displays man’s intrinsic need to worship.
Salvation in Exodus
The word salvation appears twice in the book of Exodus and refers to God’s deliverance of Israel from the bondage of slavery in Egypt (Ex. 14:13; 15:2). L. Michael Morales teaches that Israel’s deliverance from Egypt is paradigmatic for biblical salvation. Morales relies on God’s desire for Israel to worship him in the wilderness as the basis for his proposal that true liberation includes restoration to the right relationship between God and man (Ex. 3:12; 4:31; 5:3; 7:16; 8:1). He writes, “The New Testament will underscore the liberty of those who experience the new exodus accomplished by Jesus Christ, the redemption from bondage to sin and the lordship of Satan in order to glorify God with one’s whole being (see Romans 6; Galatians 4).”[9] In this way, the exodus forms the foundation of understanding the biblical concept of salvation.
Leviticus
Exodus ends with the establishment of tabernacle worship and Leviticus continues this theme by starting with instructions for priestly worship within the tabernacle (Lev. 1-7).[10] Like Genesis and Exodus, Leviticus contributes to the theological themes of God, Humanity, and Salvation.
God in Leviticus
The primary teaching about God in Leviticus is his holiness. In Leviticus 19:2, the Lord says to Moses, “Speak to all the congregation of the people of Israel and say to them, ‘You shall be holy, for I the Lord your God am holy’” (cf. 1 Pet. 1:15-16). According to Arthur W. Pink, “God’s holiness is manifested in his law.”[11] Leviticus confirms Pink’s statement because the majority of the book displays God’s provision for man when they fail to obtain holiness by breaking the law, which God himself cannot do.
Humanity in Leviticus
The priests in Leviticus, “stood not only as intercessors but also as teachers of all the decrees the Lord [had] given them through Moses.”[12] The holiness of their office reveals man’s redeemability despite violations of the covenant law. Leviticus contributes to a biblical theology of humanity by displaying that man’s three primary relationships are with God, one another, and creation.[13] For example, the scene of the Day of Atonement is a picture of the priest interacting with God on man’s behalf by offering animal sacrifices (creation) for sin (Lev. 16:6-22).
Salvation in Leviticus
Animal sacrifices, like those at the Day of Atonement, contribute to the theme and understanding of salvation in Leviticus. As Exodus is paradigmatic for salvation, so too is Leviticus for the concept of sacrificial atonement. According to Leviticus 17:11, “it is the blood that makes atonement by the life,” a statement pointing directly to the shed blood of Christ at Calvary (Heb. 9:22; 13:12). “The New Testament builds on the Old Testament principle of the necessity of an atoning sacrifice to eradicate the effects of human sin . . . Only the sacrificial atonement of the sinless Son of God is sufficient to cleanse . . . from sin and unrighteousness.”[14]
Numbers
The book of Numbers is a narrative chronicling the disobedience and death of the old generation of Israelites and the emergence of a new generation, one ready to enter the Promised Land. Numbers develops the theology of God, Humanity, and Salvation through these events.
God in Numbers
Throughout the book of Numbers, God’s intolerance of disobedience is seen in, “The many Israelite rebellions [that] prompted God’s judgment of death and plagues.”[15] Numbers displays God's wrath toward covenant-breakers, as seen in the lives of Miriam, Korah, and the entire rebellious nation (Num. 12:9-10; 16:32; 22:22). Although God’s wrath rests on the pages of Numbers, his love does too. In Numbers, God’s anger and wrath are expressions of his love on behalf of those who suffer harm against them.[16] It is God’s love for Moses that leads to his anger toward Miriam and Korah. Numbers also reveals God’s approval of righteous anger when he grants peace to Phineas after the Levite drives a spear through Zimri, the unfaithful Israelite, and his Midianite accomplice, Cozbi (Num. 25:6-11).
Humanity in Numbers
The scene of Phineas’ zealous action against Zimri and Cozbi displays man’s ability to act morally. Despite God’s work on their behalf, Israel continually complains and grumbles against the Lord and Moses, revealing their discontentment (Numbers 11; 14:2; 16:11). From sexual immorality to idolatry to grumbling, the grievousness of Israel’s sins in the book of Numbers is reminiscent of Genesis 8:21, which says, “for the intentions of man’s heart is evil from his youth.” The sins of the old generation reveal the depth of Israel’s depravity and set the stage for the commandments to love the Lord from a pure heart in the book of Deuteronomy.
Salvation in Numbers
J. H. Walton presents the following Old Testament equation of salvation: “sin leading to covenant disorder resulting from impurity in sacred space, sacrificial system, [and] equilibrium restored to sacred space.”[17] The book of Numbers contributes to this equation through vivid displays of sin leading to covenant disorder. The old generation’s rebellion proves man’s need for salvation beyond liberation from an oppressor, for such deliverance cannot change one’s heart nor reconcile one wholly unto God. Numbers contributes to the doctrine of salvation by displaying the need for internal change that leads to the fruit of covenant obedience.
Deuteronomy
The placement of the last book of the Pentateuch transitions Israel from the wanderings in the wilderness under the leadership of Moses to the conquest of the promised land under Joshua’s direction. Deuteronomy brings functional order within the everyday life of Israel while continuing to expand on the theology of God, Humanity, and Salvation within the Pentateuch.
God in Deuteronomy
In the English Standard Version, the name “God” appears 326 times in Deuteronomy, second only to the 400 mentions of his name in the Psalms. Among these 326 mentions of the Lord, Moses portrays God as one who is faithful to keep his promises (Deut. 1:10), judges without partiality (Deut. 1:17), and is greater than any other god (Deut. 3:24). According to Deuteronomy, God is a consuming fire (4:24), jealous (4:24), merciful (4:31), in heaven (4:39), one (6:4), faithful (7:9), upright (32:4), just (32:4), and eternal (33:27). On 33 occasions within the book of Deuteronomy, the audience hears the phrase “God is giving you.” The contents of God’s generosity largely consist of his covenant promises which find their roots in the Abrahamic Covenant (Deut. 29:13). These promises display that God rewards obedience.
Humanity in Deuteronomy
Deuteronomy features speeches with retrospective and prospective elements.[18] The retrospective portions of Moses’ speeches capture the wilderness years that show man’s sin and collective rebellion against God. Unmistakably, Deuteronomy credits the heart of man as the source of his sin problem. According to Deuteronomy, the heart can be obstinate (2:3), loving (6:5), proud (9:4; 17:20), grudging (15:10), faint (20:3), glad (28:47), and trembling (28:67). Deuteronomy 8:2 reveals that God’s purpose in the wilderness is to bring the contents of the Jews’ hearts to the forefront of their conscience. When those among humanity repent of their internal sin, they tend to experience external unity, brotherhood, and blessing (Deut. 10:12-22).
Salvation in Deuteronomy
Deuteronomy 7:6 describes Israel saying, “For you are a people holy to the Lord your God. The Lord your God has chosen you to be a people for his treasured possession out of all the peoples who are on the face of the earth.” The Apostle Peter posits a similar truth regarding the elect exiles of the Dispersion in the New Testament, saying, “But you are a chosen race, a royal priesthood, a holy nation, a people for his own possession” (1 Pet. 2:9). “The choice of Israel is dependent solely on Yahweh’s love for them.”[19] On the basis of Peter’s connection of the elect to Israel in 1 Peter 2:9, J.G. McConville’s statement regarding Yahweh’s love for Israel is applicable for the elect today. Israel’s rebellion in the wilderness reveals the fleshly, or sinful, condition of the heart. Deuteronomy explains the cure for such a pervasive ailment and identifies the only one able to initiate such a remedy, saying, “And the Lord your God will circumcise your heart and the heart of your offspring, so that you will love the Lord your God with all your heart and with all your soul, that you may live” (Deut. 30:6).
Conclusion
The Pentateuch reveals God’s faithfulness to his covenant people, man’s propensity to break the covenant, and man’s need for salvation. From Genesis 3:15 to Deuteronomy 18:15, the Pentateuch points to Jesus, who climbs mount Calvary, not to abolish the Law and the Prophets, but to fulfill them (Matthew 5:17).
Notes:
[1] Unless otherwise specified, all Bible references in this article are to the English Standard Version (ESV) (Crossway, IL: Crossway, 2001).
[2] John H. Sailhamer, The Meaning of the Pentateuch: Revelation, Composition, and Interpretation (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2009), 63.
[3] L.A. Turner, “Book of Genesis,” in Dictionary of the Old Testament: Pentateuch, eds. T. Desmond Alexander and David W. Baker (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2003), 356.
[4] J.H. Walton, “Creation,” in Dictionary of the Old Testament: Pentateuch, eds. T. Desmond Alexander and David W. Baker (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2003), 161.
[5] Douglas Stuart, Hosea-Jonah Volume 31, World Bible Commentary (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2017), 110.
[6] M.D. Gow, “Fall,” in Dictionary of the Old Testament: Pentateuch, eds. T. Desmond Alexander and David W. Baker (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2003), 286.
[7] Wayne Grudem, Systematic Theology: An Introduction to Biblical Doctrine (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1994), 118.
[8] T.E. Fretheim, “Book of Exodus,” in Dictionary of the Old Testament: Pentateuch, eds. T. Desmond Alexander and David W. Baker (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2003), 256.
[9] L. Michael Morales, Exodus Old and New: A Biblical Theology of Redemption (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2020), 38.
[10] N. Kiuchi, “Book of Leviticus,” in Dictionary of the Old Testament: Pentateuch, eds. T. Desmond Alexander and David W. Baker (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2003), 286.
[11] Arthur W. Pink, The Attributes of God (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 1975), 53.
[12] Max Anders and Glen S. Martin, eds., Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Holman Old Testament Commentary (Nashville, TN: B&H Publishing Group, 2002), 186.
[13] John Macarthur and Richard Mayhue, eds., Biblical Doctrine: A Systematic Summary of Biblical Doctrine (Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2017), 450.
[14] Ed Hindson and Gary Yates, eds., The Essence of the Old Testament: A Survey (Nashville, TN: B&H Academic, 2012), 95.
[15] D.T. Colson, “Book of Numbers,” in Dictionary of the Old Testament: Pentateuch, eds. T. Desmond Alexander and David W. Baker (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2003), 615.
[16] David Powlison, “Anger Part 1: Understanding Anger,” Journal of Biblical Counseling 14, no. 1 (Fall 1995): 41.
[17] J. H. Walton, Old Testament Theology for Christians: From Ancient Context to Enduring Belief (Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 2017), 229.
[18] J.G. McConville, “Book of Deuteronomy,” in Dictionary of the Old Testament: Pentateuch, eds. T. Desmond Alexander and David W. Baker (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2003), 183.
[19] J.G. McConville, “Book of Deuteronomy,” in Dictionary of the Old Testament: Pentateuch, 183.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Anders, Max and Glen S. Martin, eds. Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers. Holman Old Testament Commentary.Nashville, TN: B&H Publishing Group, 2002.
Colson, D.T. “Book of Numbers.” In Dictionary of the Old Testament: Pentateuch, edited by T. Desmond Alexander and David W. Baker, 611-617. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2003.
Fretheim, T.E. “Book of Exodus.” In Dictionary of the Old Testament: Pentateuch, edited by T. Desmond Alexander and David W. Baker, 249-258. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2003.
Gow, M.D. “Fall.” In Dictionary of the Old Testament: Pentateuch, edited by T. Desmond Alexander and David W. Baker, 285-291. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2003.
Grudem, Wayne. Systematic Theology: An Introduction to Biblical Doctrine. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1994.
Hindson, Ed and Gary Yates, eds. The Essence of the Old Testament: A Survey. Nashville, TN: B&H Academic, 2012.
Kiuchi, N. “Book of Leviticus.” In Dictionary of the Old Testament: Pentateuch, edited by T. Desmond Alexander and David W. Baker, 522-532. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2003.
Macarthur, John and Richard Mayhue, eds. Biblical Doctrine: A Systematic Summary of Biblical Doctrine. Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2017.
McConville, J.G. “Book of Deuteronomy.” In Dictionary of the Old Testament: Pentateuch, edited by T. Desmond Alexander and David W. Baker, 182-193. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2003.
Morales, L. Michael. Exodus Old and New: A Biblical Theology of Redemption. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2020.
Pink, Arthur W. The Attributes of God. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 1975.
Powlison, David. “Anger Part 1: Understanding Anger.” Journal of Biblical Counseling 14, no. 1 (Fall 1995): 40-53.
Sailhamer, John H. The Meaning of the Pentateuch: Revelation, Composition, and Interpretation. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2009.
Stuart, Douglas. Hosea-Jonah Volume 31. World Bible Commentary. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2017.
Turner, L.A. “Book of Genesis.” In Dictionary of the Old Testament: Pentateuch, edited by T. Desmond Alexander and David W. Baker, 350-359. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2003.
Walton, J.H. “Creation.” In Dictionary of the Old Testament: Pentateuch, edited by T. Desmond Alexander and David W. Baker, 155-167. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2003.
______. Old Testament Theology for Christians: From Ancient Context to Enduring Belief. Downs Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 2017.
